Civil Society, Political Activism and Communications in Democratisation Conflicts: A Literature Review

This paper examines the role of civil society organisations in the democratisation process of four countries - Egypt, Kenya, Serbia, and South Africa. It explores the nature and organisation of civil society and the ways in which civil society is communicating through the mainstream media and through other communications channels. In particular, it focuses on: how the media covers civil society activities; how civil society organisations communicate; and the potential of new Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) for delivering democratic change.

The paper has been published as part at of the Media, Conflict and Democratisation (MeCoDEM) project which investigates the role of traditional media and ICTs in conflicts that accompany and follow transitions from authoritarian rule to more democratic forms of government. The project seeks to investigate the interplay between media and democratisation conflicts, which it defines as “conflicts that are either triggered by the transition process or caused by incomplete consolidation”. The project is focusing its research on four countries: Serbia, Egypt, Kenya, and South Africa, which were chosen because they reflect different experiences of democratisation conflicts and because they differ widely in terms of their political, social, economic, and cultural makeup.

The paper, which is based on an extensive literature review, is divided into five different sub-sections: Section 3 explores definitional issues and models of civil society and the applicability of these to the four countries studied; Section 4 explores what constitutes social and political activism and if there is any difference between the two; Section 5 looks at mainstream media coverage of democratisation conflicts and models for understanding media coverage; and Section 6 explores how activists use media to communicate, mobilise support, and draw attention to their issues, examining different mediums used by activists in different country contexts. Lastly, Section 7 focuses on the role of ICTs in activism and protest.

The following are some of the key findings (as extracted from the Executive Summary):

• "It is not always clear that civil society and the state are playing separate roles or occupying separate terrains - depending on the state form, civil society can be inter alia embedded in state structures, working openly with the state, have a limited role in demanding services from the state, in active open opposition to the state, or working underground and hidden from view.
• Civil society cannot always be regarded as a democratising force - while it can play such a role, depending on context, it can be violent, and in some instances even opposed to broad-based equal rights for all. In addition, civil society groups might be focussed on minimalist demands - not broad or deep societal change.
• While some of the literature delineates between social and political activism - where political activism is directed at the state and social activism focuses on a range of causes, such as environmentalism, gender and LGBTIQ [Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex, and Questioning] rights, and services such as housing - in the countries explored under this study, activism could not be neatly divided into one type or the other.
• Although there may be variations from one context to the next, the reality of conventional ‘news values’ informing news production in the legacy media mean that democratisation conflicts (or any other conflict for that matter), are likely to be framed as ‘events’, with emphasis on the spectacle, and ‘official’ sources such as spokespersons are likely to be given prominence even when their lived experiences are not integral to the conflict. Therefore, the underlying causes and complexities of civil society contestation are unlikely to be explored in the mainstream media.
• Though a range of factors limit activist access to the media, the media is not an un-budging monolith - at times it is receptive to calls for change, especially if an organisation achieves broad support through both media and non-media activities. Activists can also deploy their own “media”, which can involve a range of cultural activities and products, including newsletters, banners and pamphlets, films and photographs, clothing such as t-shirts, dramatic productions, etc.
• While ICTs and social media have risen as prominent terrains where civil society contestation can play out, these ICTs do not work in isolation, but in relation to other forms of communication - including mainstream media and interpersonal communication - so the impact of ICTs on contestation and democracy depends on the media, social, economic and political context in which they are deployed."